SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT

1. Introduction

 Solid   waste   management   is   the   process   of   collecting,   treating,   and  disposing   of   solid   materials   that   are   no   longer   useful   or   have   served   their   purpose. It  involves   various   methods   to   ensure   that   waste   is   handled   in   a   way   that   is   safe   for   the  environment and public health
A municipal solid waste management system includes:
1. Setting and enforcing rules
2. Evaluating the system’s effectiveness
3. Studying waste types  to improve the system
4. Handling waste , including sorting, collecting, composting, burning, and burying
5. Selling recyclables  to businesses
6. Educating the public  and training workers
7. Finding ways to fund  the system
8. Setting service prices  and offering rewards
9. Managing government operations
10. Working with private businesses , like small collectors and recyclers.
Integrated Solid Waste Management (ISWM)
 Integrated   Solid   Waste   Management   (ISWM)   is   a   complete  approach   to   dealing   with   waste.   It   looks   at   all   parts   of   waste   handling   together   because   they  affect   each   other.   ISWM   aims   to   reduce,   reuse,   and   manage   waste   in   the   safest   and   most  eco-friendly   ways.   It   includes   planning,   funding,   collecting,   and   moving   waste.   ISWM  creates   systems   that   are   good   for   the   environment,   don’t   cost   too   much,   and   people   agree  with.   It   uses   different   ways   to   treat   waste,   but   no   single   way   can   handle   everything.   So,   it’s  important to find the best mix of methods for each community .
An integrated approach to waste management is important because :
1. It solves problems better when everything works together.
2. It   makes   full   use   of   resources   and   saves   money   when   all   waste   activities   are  combined.
3. It   lets   different   groups   like   the   government,   businesses,   and   local   workers   take   part.
4. It helps find cheaper ways to manage waste.
5. It balances activities that cost money with those that make money.
6. Without   it,   only   profitable   activities   might   get   attention,   while   important   health   and  safety tasks might not get enough support.
To integrate a waste system, planners should:
• Look at the whole system  and make a plan that meets its goals.
• Use a waste management hierarchy  to decide what activities are most important.
• Put all waste tasks under one group  to work better together.
• Set   up   a   financial   system   that   uses   fees   from   waste   disposal   to   support   recycling  and education.
• Check all costs  and find ways to make money from waste management.
Hierarchy of ISWM

The   waste   management   hierarchy   is   a   guide   used   worldwide   to   manage   waste   in   eco- friendly   ways.   It   ranks   different   ways   to   handle   waste   as   per   the   waste   is   safe   to   the  environment. It include following activates: 
1. Avoid making waste  or make less of it.
2. Make waste less harmful .
3. Use things again  as they are.
4. Recycle or compost  to make new things.
5. Turn waste into energy  through burning or other methods.
6. Shrink waste  before throwing it away.
7. Safely bury  what’s left over in landfills.
This   hierarchy   helps   save   resources,   reduce   pollution,   and   keep   people   safe.   In   many  places,   especially   where   resources   are   limited,   reusing   and   recycling   are   common.   But  every   method   has   costs   and   benefits,   so   sometimes   it’s   not   possible   to   follow   the   hierarchy  exactly if it’s too expensive or not practical.
 
To design an Integrated Solid Waste Management (ISWM) system, you need:
1. Understanding of the waste : Know what kind of waste is there and its properties.
2. Knowledge   of   the   area :   Learn   about   the   local   roads,   traffic,   storage   spaces,   and  land use.
3. Community   insights :   Find   out   if   people   are   willing   to   pay   for   waste   services   and  their attitudes towards waste management.
4. Information   on   current   practices :   Gather   data   on   how   waste   is   currently   managed  by different groups in the region.
Development of SWM in Nepal
 In   Nepal,   people   have   always   cared   about   the   environment   and   included   waste  management   in   their   culture.   Kathmandu,   a   key   city,   had   its   own   system   for   handling   waste.   The  Newar   community   would   recycle   resources   by   making   manure   pits   called   SAAGA,   which   they  cleaned   out   regularly.   Cleaning   religious   places   and   streets   was   a   part   of   their   tradition,   but   it   was  done by the lower caste, who were not treated well and paid with leftover food and old clothes.
 In   1917,   a   sanitation   department   called   SAFAI   ADDA   was   set   up   to   manage   waste,   mainly  street   cleaning.   After   Nepal   became   more   democratic   in   1950,   Kathmandu   grew   quickly,   and   the  city’s   main   goal   was   to   stay   clean.   Back   then,   workers   used   simple   tools   like   buffalo   rib   bones, 
baskets,   and   brooms,   along   with   a   few   tractors,   to   clean   the   streets   and   put   the   waste   on   empty  land or near rivers.
The German Project in Nepal  
Phase 1 (1980-82):
• Started a new way to collect and throw away waste in some places.
• Built places to work and store things for waste management.
• Got better tools like tractors for picking up trash.
• Cleaned streets and picked up waste in busy areas.
• Made   a   place   to   throw   away   trash   at   Teku   and   tried   out   a   plant   to   turn   waste   into   compost.
Phase 2 (1983-86):
• Kept doing what Phase 1 did and did more.
• Cleaned up trash from inside places and near rivers.
• Set up public toilets and places to wash.
• Made a bigger plant at Teku to turn waste into compost.
• Built a clean place to bury trash at Gokarna and told people how to manage waste better.
Phase 3 (1987-90):
• Made a law for managing waste in 1988.
• Started managing waste in cities.
• Made people pay for waste services.
• Tried to get money to keep the waste system going.
• Used a better system to keep track of everything.
• Closed the compost plant in 1990 because people didn’t want it.
Phase 4 (1990-93):
• The plan was supposed to end in 1990, but things weren’t going smoothly.
• So, they kept it going until 1993.
• They started more programs to teach people.
• Made a new place to bury trash at Syuchatar.
• Helped local people take over the waste management jobs.
Positive side Of the German Project
• It was the  first of its kind  in Nepal.
• It brought a  new system  for managing waste.
• It  modernized  the way waste was handled.
• It made a  clean place  to safely bury trash.
• It started  teaching people  about managing waste.
• It helped  local workers  learn how to manage waste themselves.
Negative side Of the German Project
• It didn’t have a  long-term plan  for the institutions involved.
• It lacked a  steady money plan  to keep going.
• It didn’t involve the  community  enough or make them aware from the start.
1.2. Legislation provision of solid waste management in Nepal
Nepal has a law called the  Solid Waste Management Act (2068)  to keep the environment clean  by handling waste properly. Focus on 3R Rule: The law focuses on reducing waste, reusing  things, and recycling.
Local Responsibility:
• The   act   assigns   responsibility   for   solid   waste   management   to   local   bodies   like  municipalities
• These   bodies   handle   collection,   treatment,   and   final   disposal   of   Municipal   Solid  Waste (MSW) 
• They   determine   designated   collection   points,   timings,   and   methods   for   waste  disposal, considering public health and environmental impact.
 Institutional Support:
• The   Solid   Waste   Management   Technical   Support   Center   (SWMTSC)   under   the  Ministry   of   Urban   Development   provides   technical   assistance   to   local   bodies   for  effective and sustainable waste management 
• The   Ministry   can   also   help   acquire   land   for   sanitary   landfill   sites   if   requested   by  local bodies facing land scarcity
Segregation and Management:
• Segregation   of   waste   at   the   source   is   mandatory.   The   Act   lays   out   specific   guidelines  for   handling   different   types   of   waste,   including   hazardous   or   chemical   waste,   which  remains the generator's responsibility 
Landfill Sites and Environmental Impact:
• The   Act   allows   for   the   development   and   operation   of   sanitary   landfill   sites   on   private   land  with   proper   procedures.   Local   bodies   must   consider   potential   environmental   and   public  health impacts when selecting and managing these sites.
The Role of the Ministry:
• The   Act   establishes   the   Ministry   of   Local   Development   (now   Ministry   of   Federal   Affairs  and   General   Administration)   as   the   central   authority.   It   provides   technical   support   to   local  bodies   through   the   SWM   Technical   Support   Center   (SWMTSC)   and   promotes   research  and development in the sector
It   also   includes   provisions   for   promoting   public   awareness   and   encouraging   revenue- generating   activities   from   waste   management,   like   selling   compost   or   biogas   and   penalties 
3R principles of Solid Waste Management
Reduce:   Make   less   trash   by   using   things   like   cloth   bags,   less   packaging,   composting,   and   fixing  stuff.
Reuse:  Use things again, like giving away old clothes or using jars for storage.
Recycle:  Turn trash into new things by sorting it into groups like paper and plastic.
2. Source and Types of Solid Waste

Types of Solid Waste
A. Source
1. Residential Waste:  This includes waste from households, colonies, and apartments.  It consists of kitchen waste, used wrappers, broken utensils, and other household  waste materials.
2. Commercial Waste:  This category includes waste from office buildings,  marketplaces, shops, restaurants, and hotels. It mainly consists of plastics, textiles,  and food waste.
3. Institutional Waste:  This refers to waste generated from institutions like offices,  schools, and colleges. It is typically inorganic and predominantly consists of paper  waste
4. Municipal Service Waste:  This includes waste from municipal facilities like waste  water treatment plants, incinerators, and street sweepings. These mixed wastes are  known as Municipal Solid Waste.
5. Industrial Waste : This refers to non-hazardous waste produced during the  fabrication, refining, and transformation of goods into consumables .
6. Agricultural Waste:  This includes waste from the harvesting, processing, and  storage of agricultural products. Most of these wastes are organic and recyclable.
B .  Component Composition:  Waste can be classified into different types based on its  components. This varies by place, city, and even country Examples include food waste,  cardboards, plastics, textiles, leather, glasses, tins/cans, and ferrous and non-ferrous  materials. 
C.   By Regulations:  Solid waste is classified into two types by regulations:
1. Non-hazardous Waste:  These are wastes that do not pose a direct threat to human  health or release toxic gases or chemicals.
2. Hazardous Waste:  These are wastes that pose a substantial hazard to human health or  living organisms. They are lethal, non-degradable, can be biologically magnified, or  cause detrimental cumulative effects.
Properties of Municipal Solid Waste:
A. Physical properties
1.   Density:        Density   is   the   weight   of   waste   in   a   specific   volume,   usually   measured   in  kilograms   per   cubic   meter   (kg/m3).   It   helps   us   figure   out   the   size   of   trucks   and   storage  needed   for   waste.   For   example,   heavy   waste   like   metals   takes   up   less   space   than   lighter,  bulkier waste like plastic packaging.
2.   Size   Distribution :   Waste   comes   in   different   sizes,   from   small   food   scraps   to   large  furniture   and   construction   debris.   The   size   of   waste   affects   how   it’s   managed.   For   example,  large   items   might   need   to   be   shredded   or   crushed   before   they   can   be   processed   or   disposed  of.
3.   Moisture Content:   This refers to the amount of water in waste. It affects the waste’s  weight, size, and how easily it can break down. For example, organic waste like food is  wet and heavy and breaks down easily. Dry waste like paper and cardboard is lighter and  doesn’t break down as easily.
4. Field Capacity:   This is how much moisture waste can hold against gravity. It’s  important for figuring out how much liquid waste (leachate) a landfill will produce. Field  capacity changes based on the pressure applied and how much the waste has  decomposed. For mixed Municipal Solid Waste (MSW), field capacity is usually between  50-60%.
5. Permeability:   This is the ability of a material to allow water or other liquids to pass  through it. It’s important for understanding how liquids and gases move in landfills.  Permeability depends on factors like pore size distribution, surface area, porosity, and the  properties of the waste materials.
B. Chemical Properties:
1. Moisture Content:  This refers to the amount of water in waste. It affects the waste’s  weight, size, and how easily it can break down. For example, organic waste like food is  wet and heavy and breaks down easily. Dry waste like paper and cardboard is lighter and  doesn’t break down as easily.
1. Volatile   solids:   These   are   organic   materials   in   the   waste   that   can   be   vaporized   by  heating.   They   are   typically   biodegradable   and   can   be   a   good   source   of   energy   through  processes like composting or incineration.
2. Ash   content:   This   is   the   inorganic   material   remaining   after   burning   the   volatile   solids.  It represents the incombustible portion of the waste, mostly minerals and glass.
3. CHNSO   content:   This   refers   to   the   percentage   of   Carbon   (C),   Hydrogen   (H),   Nitrogen  (N),   Sulfur   (S),   and   Oxygen   (O)   present   in   the   waste.   These   elements   are   essential  nutrients for some biological processes and can be valuable in composting.
4. Calorific   value:   This   is   the   amount   of   energy   released   when   the   waste   is   burned.   It  determines the potential of the waste to be used as a fuel source.
Functional elements of solid waste management program
1. Waste Generation:  The solid that have serve their purpose or no longer useful are  solid waste. It include food scrap, paper, plastic, tins cans produce from household. 
2. On-Site Handling, Storage, and Processing:  This process include collecting the  generated solid waste from household into bins and bags inside the buildings
3. Collection:  In this process the generated waste from households are collected into  small truck 
4. Transfer and Transport:  This involves moving the waste from smaller trucks to  bigger and transport it to the treatment or disposal site.
5. Processing and Recovery:  In this process the waste is separated and the resource is  recovery through Recycling and reusing. The waste is treated to make it less harmful  and generate energy by the decomposition, burning and compositing. 
6. Disposal:  This is the last step, where left over waste safely buried in the landfill  following safety protocol.
Methods used to estimate Waste Quantities
➢ Load Count Analysis:  Load count analysis is a method to study the amount and types of waste collected. It  include following process: 
1. We have to collect 8 days record of waste generated continuously.
2. Skip first date waste to get more accurate result and we need to collect at least  100-200 kg of waste sample.
3. From all the waste collected divided the waste into smaller portions.
4. Separate the waste into different type like organic, plastic, paper, metals.
5. Measure the mass of each waste type. 
6. Calculate the percentage of each type by its weight and density.
➢ Mass-volume analysis :
This   is   the   simple   and   accurate   method   of   waste   estimation.   In   this   process   weighting  bridge   is   used   to   weight   the   truck   before   and   after   dumping   in   landfill.   The   different   in   the  weight represent the amount of waste generated. 
➢ Mass-Balance method :
    This is the powerful tool used to estimate the waste generation and  track the movement. It is based on the principle of conservation of mass. It include the  following process:
1. Set up a closed boundary like city for waste study
2. Collect the waste from that boundary area
3. Divide the collected waste into small portion 
4. Separate the waste into organic ,paper, plastic and metal 
5. Measure the weight and volume of each type 
6. Calculate the percentage by volume and weight of each type 
Factors that affect waste generation rates:
1. Reducing waste generation 
2. Recycle thing as much as possible 
3. Community attitude toward waste management 
4. Effectiveness of law
5. Weather condition 
6. Geographical condition of site 
3. COLLECTION, TRANSFER AND TRANSPORT

Waste Management Techniques in Different types of buildings
For low-rise detached houses:
• People can be encouraged to compost organic waste.
• Separate inorganic waste for recycling.
• Inorganic waste might be collected less often.
• Homeowners may need to take their waste out themselves as a responsibility.
For medium-rise buildings:
• Residents sort their waste and put it in bins in the basement or a special area.
• Workers move the bins to collection point and bring them back.
For high-rise buildings:
• People drop their trash down a chute to a bin in the basement.
• Workers or city staff collect the bin from there.
Waste collection system and services 
1. Curb-side Collection:
In this system the house owner collect the waste in bins and deposit the bins on curb on  specific date and time specify by the Municipal. After waste is emptied owner brings the  bins back. 
2. Alley Collection:
In this method all the households of designated area collect the waste and deposit the bins  in the designated spot on alley .Municipal worker empty the bins and leave them there.  House owner bring their bins back.
3. Set-out Collection:
In this method extra Municipal worker comes with transfer truck who collect the bins  from each house, empty the bins and leave the empty bins there. House owner brings the  empty bins back.
4. Backyard Collection:
In this method additional municipal worker with transfer truck come who collect the bins  from each house, empty it and return it back.
5. Neighborhood Collection:
In this system the Municipal provide a bin in the road side .The people from designated  area collect the waste in bucket and bags and deposit in that bin. Municipal worker empty  the bin in their schedule. 
6. Block Collection:
In this system the Municipal worker blow the bell or whistle. People of the designated are  bring their waste and deposit waste in collection truck with in time. 
7. Door-to-door Collection:
A city worker signals, and then either they or the homeowner takes the trash to the truck.  Sometimes, small carts are used to take the trash to a bigger truck later.
Hauled container system:
The “Hauled Container System” is a method where large containers filled with waste are  transported to a disposal site by a truck. After emptying, the containers are returned to  their original location. This system is best in area were waste production rate is high. In  this system Truck with hoist, tilts and trailer is used to lift the bins, tilt the bins to empty  and trailer carry the waste away.

  Stationary Container Systems: 
It   is   method   where   truck   is   used   to   empty   the   large   stationary   container   filled   with   waste.   The   truck  contain   mechanical   arms   to   lift,   tilt   and   empty   the   container   in   specific   time   and   compact   the   waste  and move the waste away and place the container in original location.
Steps in collecting trash:

Phase 1:  Generated waste are place in bags and then to the large container.
Phase 2:  Waste goes from the container to the truck.
Phase 3:  The truck goes from place to place collecting more trash.
Phase 4:  Trash goes to the dump or a sorting place.
Phase 5:  Trash is sorted for recycling or other uses.
Transfer station:
A transfer station is a place where local collection vehicle deposit waste for temporary  and transfer waste is temporarily to the large truck for final treatment or disposal of  waste.
Transfer stations are useful when:
1. There are facilities for recovering resources.
2. The distance for hauling waste is long (more than 7km).
3. Small vehicles (less than 10m3) are used for collecting waste.
4. Small containers are used in the waste collection system.
Types of Transfer station:
1. Direct loading TS:
  In this station local collection vehicle direct transfer the waste to the large truck
For final treatment .There may not be facility of compaction.
2. Store loading TS: 
  In   this   station   the   waste   collected   from   the   local   collector   vehicle   is   store   in   a   pit   and  transfer   to   the   transport   vehicle   for   treatment   .This   is   a   complex   process   including   compaction.  The waste can be store for 1-2 days.
3. Combine load TS: 
  In   this   station   some   of   the   waste   is   store   for   resource   recovery   and   some   are   directly  transfer to the transport vehicle for treatment.
Activities/Processes in a Landfill 
A. PHYSICAL: 
1. Compaction 
2. Dissolve of mineral into water 
3. Absorption 
4. Settlement 
B.CHEMICAL:
1. Oxidation
2. Acid reaction 
C.BIOLOGICAL:
1. Aerobic decomposition
2. Anaerobic decomposition
Leachate:
  It   is   a   liquid   waste   produce   due   to   the   percolation   of   moisture   and   rainwater   through  different layer of waste in landfill.
Water balance in a landfill
 It   is   a   system   that   track   the   movement   of   incoming   and   outgoing  water   in   the   land   fill.   Water   income   in   the   form   of   moisture   in   waste   and   rainfall.  Water   Outgoing   in   the   form   of   evaporation,   utilize   by   plant,   formation   and   loss   of  gases.   Soil   can   hold   some   moisture   content   called   field   capacity   .If   the   moisture   is  excess than FC then it will be leachate. The water balance equation is given
M c =W in +W RF +W g +W c -W e -W R -W gas -W wgas
M c =Change in moisture content 
 W in =moisture in incoming waste
W RF =Rainfall in landfill
W g =Water percolate through ground 
W c =Moisture present in Cover soil
W e =Moisture loss due to evaporation 
W R = Water runoff that don’t touch land fill
W gas =Moisture loss for gas formation 
W wgas =Moisture loss with gas evaporation 
Liner System:
  A liner system in a landfill is a barrier that keeps leachate from leaking out  into the environment. In country that receive heavy rainfall and content organic matter in  waste need good liner system to protect the ground and water. In developed country a  fancy liner made of plastic and clay is used but it is quite expensive. In developing  country the thick layer of compacted clay can be use because it is cheap and locally  available. The clay should be tightly pack to prevent percolation of the rain water. 
Different parts of a liner system include :
1. Geo-membranes:  Plastic sheets to block liquids and gases.
2. Geo-nets:  Net-like layers for draining water.
3. Geo-textiles:  Fabrics to keep different layers from mixing up.
4. Clay liners:  Thick clay to stop water from getting through.
5. Sand or gravel:  For draining water away.
6. Soil layers:  To protect the liner from damage during waste handling.
7. Geo-synthetic clay liner (GCL):  A mix of clay and other materials that’s really  good at blocking water
Landfill’s drainage system
➢ Base   Liners :   These   are   layers   at   the   bottom,   usually   made   of   clay   or   plastic,   covered   by  a thick layer of gravel. 
➢ Leachate   Collection   System :   Gravel   layer   with   pipes   at   the   bottom   to   collect   and   move  the dirty water (leachate). 
➢ Depth :  This gravel layer should be at least 50 cm deep.  
➢ Hydraulic Conductivity :  The gravel should let water flow through it quickly
➢ Protective   Layer :   On   top   of   the   gravel,   there’s   a   layer   of   finer   waste   material   to   protect  the pipes and keep them working for a long time. 
➢ Geotextile :   A   fabric   between   the   protective   layer   and   gravel   to   stop   small   particles   from  clogging the system.
Final cover:
It is a layer of compacted soil about 50cm thick. Purpose are:
1) Prevent rain water from percolation to waste
2) To support vegetation growth
3) To prevent the spread of Diseases cause by flies and warm of waste 
4) To remove spread of landfill gas 
5) Prevent the animals from eating plastic and waste 
6) To remove odors produce due to decomposition 
7) To prevent formation of greater amount of leachate 
8) To prevent erosion of waste due to rain and wind
Leachate treatment: 
 It   is   the   process   of   cleaning   the   liquid   waste   produce   from   land   fill.   In  include following process:
1. Anaerobic Treatment:  Without oxygen, anaerobic bacterial present in the waste start  breaking down the waste.
2. Aerobic Treatment:  In present of oxygen, aerobic bacterial present in the waste  further break down the organic matter present water.
3. Oxidation Pond:  The final step where the treated water is store for several hours  where the heavy material settle down by gravity and clean water is sucked slowly  with pumps.
To save the energy and the system let the water to flow down to downhill to the  treatment area. 
Landfill Gas Management:
  Different   types   of   gas   are   release   during   the   decomposition   of  waste   in   landfill.   These   gas   include   methane,   carbon   dioxide,   hydrogen   sulphide,   carbon  mono   oxide   and   so   on   which   are   harmful   for   environment   and   human   health.   Management  of   landfill   gases   are   important   because   these   gases   are   highly   explosive   and   greenhouse  gases.   These   gas   can   be   use   as   fuel   to   produce   energy.   In   tropical   region   the   waste   content  high   amount   of   organic   matter   that   decompose   and   produced   more   methane   and   carbon  dioxide.   These   gas   are   collected   and   treated   to   make   gas   less   harmful   and   produce   the 
energy   by   burning   the   treated   gas.   And   some   bacterial   convert   the   ethane   into   natural  carbon dioxide.
Environmental Quality Monitoring in Landfills:
1. Monitoring of landfill emissions
It is the process of evaluation of gases and leachate produce from waste. It help us to  know the impact of land fill emission in environment, how much and what types of  pollution is release. We can learn how to manage the landfill from developed country  practices. Level of air pollution and quality of nearby natural waterbodies should be  checked time to time.
2. Monitoring Of leachate and Water quality
 It   include   the   regular   check   of   air   quality   and   nearby   water  source   water   quality.   Leachate   should   be   tested   twice   a   year   to   get   information   about   P H ,  decomposition   rate,   chemical   present   and   so   on.   Ground   water   should   be   check   once   a   year  to   see   that   the   liner   at   the   bottom   of   landfill   is   working   properly   or   not.   The   water   of   nearby  water source should be tested to check the contamination of water.
3. Monitoring of landfill gas
  It   include   the   checking   the   gas   produce   from   land   fill   site.  Landfill   gas   contain   ethane,   carbon   dioxide,   carbon   mono   oxide,   hydrogen   sulphide   and   so  on   which   are   explosive   and   greenhouse   gases.   These   gases   produce   bad   smell   it   can   affect  environment   and   healthy   of   nearby   people.   It   is   necessary   to   test   the   gas   produce   inside  and   outside   the   landfill   every   three   months   to   avoid   risk   of   toxic   gases   formation   and  prevent the health of nearby people 
4. Disposal of Solid Waste

Solid waste disposal methods:
1. Open dumping:
  This   is   the   method   where   the   waste   are   spread   over   a   large   area.   This  waste   include   debris,   ash,   non-combustion   solid   .Garbage   and   mixed   solid   are   not   spread  because   it   create   health   problem,   create   bad   smell   and   attract   pests   flies   and   warm   which  increase   the   risk   of   emission   of   harmful   gas   which   lead   to   risk   of   fire.   It   is   very   important  to   select   the   appropriate   place   for   dumping   to   protect   people   heaths   and   complain.   It  requires less manpower and resource.
2. Controlled tipping or burial :
  It   is   the   method   of   waste   disposal   in   which   the   waste   is   buried  or   burned   in   the   special   design   area.   It   is   prevent   the   waste   from   attaching   warms   and   flies.  It   is   safe   and   cleanest   method.   Waste   is   transported   to   designated   area   using   special   truck.  Waste   is   place   in   piles   and   compacted.   Waste   and   ash   is   covered   by   thin   layer   of   clay   about  22cm depths.
3. Hog feeding:
  This   is   the   process   of   waste   disposal   in   which   waste   is   feed   to   pigs.   There   is   high  chance   of   pigs   getting   sick   from   dieses   called   trichinosis   if   they   eat   raw   garbage.   This  disease   can   also   spread   to   people   if   they   eat   pork   that’s   not   cooked   well.   To   avoid   such  problem   the   garbage   should   be   collected   in   clean   bins   and   cook   the   garbage   for   30   minutes  at 100℃ and it don’t lose its nutrients. Great care and safety protocol should be used.
4. Incineration:
  It   is   the   process   of   waste   disposal   by   burning   the   waste.   Those   waste   that   are  combustible   are   only   burned   .While   burning   the   waste   great   care   should   be   taken.   There  are   two   types   of   incineration   open   and   close   incineration.   In   open   incineration   waste   is  burned   in   open   place   and   in   close   incineration   waste   is   burn   in   special   compartment.   The  energy release from burning the waste can be used for electricity production.
Advantage:
1. Required less area for disposal 
2. It is not affected by weather condition 
3. The byproduct obtain as ash is clean and less harmful
4. Different kinds of waste can be burned 
5. It is flexible and cost effective to operate 
6. Energy produce from burning can be useful for electricity production
7. It can be in one place and waste can be collected easily
Disadvantage: 
1. It need high initial investment 
2. It require high operation cost
3. It require skilled man power
4. It needed special machine and equipment for energy generation 
5. It need great care and safety protocol
6. It is difficult to find the land for burning.
5. sanitary landfill:
  It   is   the   method   of   waste   disposal   in   which   the   waste   is   place   in   the  specially   design   pit.   In   this   process   the   hazardous   waste   are   place   in   pit   and   compacted  and   a   thin   layer   of   clay   15-30   cm   is   apply   over   it   daily   after   compaction.   In   the   bottom  of   landfill   fancy   liner   are   place   to   prevent   the   contamination   of   ground   water.   The   cover  are   tightly   pack   such   that   no   rainwater   can   percolate   to   the   waste.   While   selecting   site  for   landfill   great   care   should   be   taken   .It   should   be   minimum   500m   far   from   the   nearby  residential   area.   In   several   time   interval   the   quality   of   air   inside   and   outside   the   landfill,  Ground   water   contamination   test   and   quality   test   of   water   of   nearby   Natural   water  source should be done.
Advantage:
1. Cost effective and widely accepted method
2. Low initial investment
3. Flexible and can grow with population 
4. It is near to the residential area so the collection and transport cost is less
5. It turn useless land into useful land
6. Once the land is fill it can be used for farming or to make playground 
7. It doesn’t require enough complex technology 
8. It eliminate the problem of open dumping 
9. Site for landfill can easy available 
Disadvantage:
1. Suitable land for landfill can be expensive and far 
2. It require large area
3. Waste start to decompose which produce toxic and greenhouse gases
4. It   produce   liquid   waste   called   leachate   that   can   contaminate   ground   water   and   nearby  water source.
5. There might not be available of enough soil for cover 
6. It require special equipment and worker to take care 
7. If it is not handle properly it can be converted into dump
 
Types of landfill:
1. Sanitary landfills:  These use a layer of clay to keep trash away from the  environment.
2. Dedicated landfills:  These are for one type of waste, like hospital waste or ash  from burning trash.
3. Commingled landfills:  These take all sorts of non-hazardous waste from homes,  businesses, and factories.
4. Enhanced stabilization landfills:  These landfills make a lot of gas and recycle  liquid to break down the waste faster. Old waste is used to cover new waste, like  the FUKUOKA method.
5. Municipal solid waste (MSW) landfills:  These use a plastic layer to keep trash  away from the environment.
6. Construction and demolition waste landfills:  These are for the waste from  building or tearing down things like houses and roads.
7. Industrial Waste Landfills:  These are for waste from making things that isn’t  dangerous.
Landfilling Methods:
1. Area Method:
  It   is   the   method   of   waste   disposal   where   big   trench   are   difficult   to   excavate.  Waste   is   spread   in   thin   layer   of   about   40-75   cm   deep   and   compacted   until   its   height  become   2-3m   and   a   thin   layer   of   clay   of   thickness   30cm   is   used   to   covered   the   waste  at   the   end   of   the   day   .Small   earthen   wall   is   constructed   and   waste   is   spread   in   thin  layer   and   compacted.   The   length   and   widths   of   compaction   of   waste   depend   upon  the   availability   of   land   and   waste   quantity.   The   width   of   compaction   is   2-6m.   we  can   keep   adding   cells   on   top   until   the   designed   height   reach   .If   the   soil   used   for 
cover   is   inadequate   then   ramp   can   be   used   to   scrape   the   soil   from   ground   to   cover  the waste.
2. Trench method:
  This   method   of   waste   disposal   is   useful   to   bury   waste   in   flat   land.   Trench   of  depth   2-3m   is   excavated   with   appropriate   machine.   The   excavated   material   is   dump   to  use   as   a   cover   material.   The   waste   in   speared   to   depth   40cm   and   compacted.   Compacted  waste   is   covered   with   the   thin   layer   of   soil   .This   method   is   suitable   in   area   were   the   soil  for   cover   is   adequate   and   ground   water   table   is   deep   enough.   In   rainy   season   great   care  should   be   taken.   Drainage   should   be   provided   and   sometimes   pump   have   to   be   used   to  suck water. Fancy liner is used to prevent the contamination of ground water. 
3. Depression method:
  This   method   of   waste   disposal   used   natural   or   man-made   low   land   like   pits,  quarries,   gullies.   In   gully   the   waste   is   spread   at   the   bottom   and   compact   the   waste.  Push   the   waste   in   the   side   of   gully   to   pack   it   tightly.   While   compacting   the   waste  care   should   be   taken   for   water   movement   to   ensure   that   the   water   is   not   blocked   by  landfill.   For   pits   and   query   great   care   should   be   taken   in   rainy   season.   Proper  drainage   should   be   provided   to   prevent   water   logging   and   the   depth   of   soil   used   as  cover   should   be   enough   .The   waste   should   be   filled   higher   than   the   nearby   land  because it get settlement over time.
4. Ramp Method:
  In   this   method   the   waste   are   place   in   slope   and   compacted   and   these   leaves   the  area   at   the   center   to   place   the   waste   on   another   day.   The   soil   in   front   is   used   as   cover  material .This method can manage only one layer of waste.
5. Combine method:
   In   this   method   we   use   both   area   and   trench   method   to   manage   the   waste.  When   the   soil   is   available   in   adequate   amount   then   we   use   Area   method   and   to   save  soil we use trench method. Keeping layer of waste over each other 
Site Selection for landfill:
1. Distance:
  It   should   be   located   at   least   500m   from   the   nearby   residential   area.   This   save  collection and transportation cost
2. Location Rules:
  It   should   not   be   too   close   to   the   airport,   Hospital,   Military   zone,   Flood   area,  residential area, Natural water source.
3. Available land 
  There   should   be   enough   space   for   waste,   work   area   and   safety   zone   and   land  is public and can be used for at least 5-10 years.
4. Accessibility: 
  The   site   should   be   easy   access   and   not   so   far   from   main   Road   and   close   to   the   city
5. Soil condition :
 There should be adequate available of soil for cover and lining of landfill 
6. Weather: 
   The site should be accessible and workable in any weather condition 
7. Natural Water Bodies :
  It should be located far from natural water resource to prevent  contamination ,  check natural water path, flood risk 
8. Ground water table depth :
 The depth of ground water table should be deep enough to prevent  contamination.
9. Impact in Environment:
  Study about the impact of the landfill in environment, nearby people health,  socio-economy of the site 
10. Future plan :
  Design and process of using landfill and what to do with that area after  landfill is closed should be consider.
Site Selection for Transfer Station:
7. Type of vehicle use to collet waste and loading 
8. Capacity of the Collection vehicle 
9.   Capacity of the area
10. Location from nearby city
11. Machine and tools used
12. Size of Transfer station
13. Accessibility
14.  Existing infrastructure 
15. Resource recovery services 
16. Compacting and lifting truck
17. Environmental factor like wind and rainfall 
18.  Location of sensitive habitat 
19. Impact in Environment and public health
5. Resource Recovery

Recovery of Organic wastes in Nepal:
1. Use as animal feed like food from hotel restaurant and crop harvest  byproduct 
2. Compost to make manure and fertilizer
3. Use as source of energy by burning 
4. Recycling of paper by Bhirkuti paper and Everest Mill to produce  paper 
5. Preparation of Handmade Nepali paper use for handicraft 
6. Bones are converted into button , combs and bins
7. Brush making from hair 
8. Mats and foot ware from straw
9. Roofing of house from left over grass 
Paper recycling:
 Paper recycling is a process that helps save water, energy, and reduces pollution.  Here’s what happens in simple steps:
1. Pulp Preparation: We mix paper with water to separate the fibers and take out the  dirt.
2. De-inking: We clean the pulp in water to get rid of the ink.
3. Bleaching: Sometimes we make the paper whiter.
4. Paper Making: We spread the clean pulp on a belt and squeeze out the water.
Separation Processes
1. Picking
2. Screening
3. Air Classification
4. Magnets
5. Optical separation
6. Eddy current
7. Flotation
Incinerator:
  An incinerator is a facility that burns waste, turning it into ash and gases. It’s a way  to reduce the amount of trash by 85-95% and can also create heat energy. 
Types of Combustion:
• Mass-burn:   All waste is burned together; sometimes extra energy is needed to  start the fire.
• Refuse-derived:   Waste is processed into a burnable form like pellets for more  efficient burning.
Key Components of an Incinerator:
1. Waste Delivery System:  Where waste is stored and then moved into the furnace.
2. Furnace and Chamber:  Where the waste is burned at high temperatures.
3. Air Supply:  Helps spread the waste and provides oxygen for burning.
4. Heat Recovery:  Captures the heat to use elsewhere.
5. Pollution Control: Cleans the gases before they’re released into the air.
Composting:
 Composting is the process in which the micro-organism present in the waste  break down the large complex organic material to simpler one. During this process heat is  produce, harmful germs and weeds are killed and organic matter is converted into safe  and stable product for the soil 
Composting is a two-part process where organic waste breaks down into simpler, stable  materials. Here’s a quick overview:
4. Active Stage:  Tiny organisms eat the waste, using oxygen and making heat, carbon  dioxide, and water vapor. This stage breaks down most of the waste.
5. Curing Stage:  The breakdown slows down, and the compost cools to match the air  temperature. The final compost is like humus, which is part of soil. It’s smaller in  size, lighter, and drier than the original waste.
  Factors Affecting the Composting Process:
1. Temperature:  It shows how active the composting is. The heat goes up as microbes  work, usually around 60°C, and stays high for weeks. If it gets too hot, over 70°C, it  can harm the microbes, so we turn the pile to cool it down. We keep it above 55°C for  at least 14 days to kill off bad germs and weed seeds.
2. Carbon to Nitrogen Ratio (C:N):  Microbes need more carbon than nitrogen. The  ideal starting ratio is between 25:1 and 30:1. If there’s too much carbon, the process  slows; too much nitrogen, and it turns into smelly ammonia gas.
3. Aeration:  Oxygen is crucial for fast composting. Less than 5% oxygen slows things  down. Turning the pile adds air and helps keep things moving.
4. Moisture Content:  Microbes need water to live, but not too much. The best moisture  level is between 40% and 60%. If it’s too wet or dry, we adjust by turning the pile or  adding water.
5. Porosity:  This is about how much air can move through the compost. Too compact,  and there’s not enough air; too loose, and it might dry out.
6. P H :  The best p H  for composting is between 6.5 and 7.5. Composting can change the  p H , so we might need to adjust it.
7. Nutrients:  Compost needs the right balance of nutrients like phosphorus, potassium,  and nitrogen. These are usually in things like manure and plant waste.
Type of compositing:
1. Bin Composting:  This uses natural air flow and turning with equipment like a front- end loader. It’s good for small amounts of waste like yard trimmings or animal  remains.
2. Passive Windrow Composting:  Waste is piled up and left to break down over time.  It’s slow but works well for things like manure.
3. Active Windrow Composting:  This involves regularly turning the piles to speed up  the process. It’s more labor-intensive but makes compost faster.
4. Aerated Static Pile Composting:  Air is pumped through the piles to keep the process  going. It needs electricity and equipment but is efficient.
5. In-Vessel Composting:  Waste is composted in containers with controlled air flow.  It’s very efficient and clean but can be expensive to set up.

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